Central airway obstruction: is it time to move forward?

BMC Pulmonary Medicine

Table 1 The main causes of tracheobronchial stenosis according to different etiologies

Acquired	Tumour	Systemic diseases
	Cystic carcinomas	Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
	Bronchial carcinoid tumours	Amyloidosis
	Primary squamous cell carcinoma of the trachea	Sarcoidosis
	Adenocarcinoma of the trachea	Systemic erythematous lupus
	Primary lung cancer	Relapsing polychondritis
	Metastasis	Tracheobronchopatia osteochondroplastica
	Trauma	Tracheobronchomalacia
	Previous instrumentalization
	Post-intubation	Extrinsic compression
	Post-tracheostomy	Abnormalities of the aortic arch
	Foreign body	Thymic neoplasm
	Thermal	Lymphoma
	Caustic	Mediastinal or hilar increased lymph nodes
	Radiation	Advanced esophageal cancer
	Anastomotic	Diffuse goiter
		Postpneumonectomy syndrome
	Infection	Hematomas, abscess, empyema
	Tuberculosis
	Syphilis	Other causes
	Typhoid fever	Idiopathic
	Diphtheria	Gastroesophageal reflux
	Fungal infection
Congenital	Membranous (fibrous tissue, granulation tissue)
	Cartilaginous (cartilage deformity)
	Combined

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